Introduction

The pursuit of human longevity represents one of the most complex and consequential scientific endeavors of our time, requiring unprecedented levels of international cooperation while simultaneously creating new forms of global competition. As Boyang Wang of Immortal Dragons Fund has observed, the development of longevity technologies transcends national boundaries and demands collaborative approaches that can harness the collective wisdom and resources of the global scientific community while navigating the competitive dynamics that drive innovation and investment.

The global landscape of longevity research is characterized by a fascinating paradox: while the ultimate goal—extending healthy human lifespan—is universal and benefits all of humanity, the path to achieving this goal involves intense competition between nations, institutions, and companies for scientific leadership, intellectual property, and market advantage. This dynamic creates both opportunities for transformative collaboration and challenges in coordinating efforts across different political, economic, and cultural systems.

The year 2024 has witnessed significant developments in the international longevity research ecosystem, from the establishment of new multinational research consortiums to the emergence of national longevity strategies and the increasing globalization of longevity investment. These developments reflect growing recognition that the challenges of aging research are too complex and resource-intensive for any single country or organization to address alone, while also highlighting the strategic importance of longevity technologies for national competitiveness and security.

The COVID-19 pandemic has served as a catalyst for international cooperation in health research, demonstrating both the potential for rapid global collaboration and the challenges of coordinating responses across different systems and priorities. The lessons learned from pandemic response are now being applied to longevity research, creating new models for international collaboration that can accelerate progress while respecting national interests and sovereignty.

The competitive landscape in longevity research is evolving rapidly, with traditional pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies being joined by technology giants, sovereign wealth funds, and new types of purpose-driven organizations. This diversification of players is creating new forms of competition and collaboration, as different types of organizations bring different capabilities, resources, and perspectives to the challenge of extending human lifespan.

Global Research Ecosystems

Leading National Programs

Several countries have established comprehensive national programs for longevity research, reflecting the strategic importance of this field for future competitiveness and societal well-being.

United States Initiatives: The United States has established several major initiatives focused on aging research, including the National Institute on Aging's strategic plan, ARPA-H's focus on breakthrough health technologies, and various Department of Defense programs exploring human performance enhancement. The U.S. approach emphasizes basic research, translational science, and public-private partnerships.

European Union Framework: The European Union has integrated aging research into its Horizon Europe program, with significant funding for longevity-related research through various pillars and missions. The EU approach emphasizes collaborative research across member states and integration with broader health and social policy objectives.

China's Longevity Strategy: China has made significant investments in aging research through its national science and technology programs, with particular emphasis on traditional Chinese medicine integration, population-scale studies, and AI-driven approaches. China's large population and centralized healthcare system provide unique advantages for longevity research.

Japan's Aging Society Response: Japan, facing one of the world's most rapidly aging populations, has developed comprehensive research programs focused on healthy aging, robotics for elderly care, and regenerative medicine. Japan's approach emphasizes practical applications and social implementation of longevity technologies.

United Kingdom's Healthy Ageing Initiative: The UK has established the UK Research and Innovation Healthy Ageing Challenge, which brings together multiple research councils and funding bodies to address aging research. The UK approach emphasizes interdisciplinary research and translation to clinical practice.

Singapore's Precision Medicine Initiative: Singapore has integrated longevity research into its national precision medicine strategy, leveraging its diverse population and advanced healthcare system to conduct cutting-edge aging research.

International Research Consortiums

Several major international consortiums have been established to coordinate longevity research across national boundaries.

Global Alliance for the Future of Food and Agriculture: This consortium focuses on nutrition and agricultural approaches to longevity, bringing together researchers from multiple countries to study the relationship between diet, environment, and aging.

International Longevity Alliance: This organization coordinates advocacy and research efforts across multiple countries, promoting increased investment in longevity research and facilitating international collaboration.

Longevity Escape Velocity Foundation: This international foundation supports research aimed at achieving longevity escape velocity—the point at which life expectancy increases faster than time passes.

Global Consortium for Aging Research: This consortium coordinates large-scale studies of aging across multiple populations and countries, enabling research that would be impossible within single national contexts.

International Society on Aging and Disease: This professional society facilitates collaboration between researchers worldwide and promotes the development of aging research as a distinct scientific discipline.

World Health Organization Aging Initiatives: The WHO has established several initiatives focused on healthy aging and age-related diseases, providing frameworks for international cooperation and coordination.

Emerging Research Hubs

New centers of excellence in longevity research are emerging around the world, creating a more distributed and diverse global research ecosystem.

Silicon Valley Ecosystem: The San Francisco Bay Area has emerged as a major hub for longevity research, with companies like Calico, Altos Labs, and numerous startups, supported by venture capital and technology company investment.

Boston Biotech Cluster: The Boston area continues to be a major center for longevity research, with strong academic institutions, pharmaceutical companies, and biotech startups focused on aging research.

London Longevity Hub: London has emerged as a major European center for longevity research, with companies like Juvenescence and strong academic programs at institutions like King's College London.

Swiss Precision Medicine: Switzerland has become a hub for precision medicine approaches to longevity, leveraging its pharmaceutical industry expertise and regulatory environment.

Israeli Innovation Ecosystem: Israel has developed a strong ecosystem for longevity research, with companies focusing on AI-driven drug discovery and digital health approaches to aging.

South Korean Technology Integration: South Korea has emerged as a leader in technology-enabled approaches to longevity research, particularly in areas like digital health and robotics.

Competitive Dynamics and Market Forces

Corporate Competition and Strategy

The longevity research landscape is characterized by intense competition between different types of organizations with varying strategies and capabilities.

Pharmaceutical Industry Transformation: Traditional pharmaceutical companies are adapting their strategies to address aging research, with some establishing dedicated longevity divisions while others pursue partnerships and acquisitions to gain access to longevity technologies.

Technology Company Entry: Major technology companies like Google (Calico), Amazon, and Microsoft are entering the longevity space, bringing computational capabilities, data resources, and different approaches to research and development.

Biotech Innovation: Specialized biotechnology companies focused on longevity are driving much of the innovation in the field, often pursuing novel approaches that larger companies might consider too risky.

Investment Fund Competition: Specialized longevity investment funds are competing for access to the most promising research and companies, driving up valuations and accelerating development timelines.

Academic-Industry Partnerships: Competition for partnerships with leading academic institutions is intensifying, as companies seek access to cutting-edge research and top scientific talent.

Talent Acquisition: Competition for top researchers and executives in longevity research is fierce, with companies offering substantial compensation packages and equity stakes to attract key personnel.

Intellectual Property Landscapes

The intellectual property landscape in longevity research is complex and rapidly evolving, with significant implications for competition and collaboration.

Patent Strategy: Companies are pursuing aggressive patent strategies to protect their longevity technologies, creating complex patent landscapes that can both enable and hinder innovation.

Open Source Initiatives: Some organizations are pursuing open source approaches to longevity research, sharing data and technologies to accelerate overall progress in the field.

Licensing and Cross-Licensing: Complex licensing arrangements are emerging as companies seek to access complementary technologies while protecting their own intellectual property.

Patent Thickets: The proliferation of patents in longevity research is creating patent thickets that can make it difficult for new entrants to navigate the intellectual property landscape.

International Patent Coordination: Differences in patent laws and practices across countries create challenges for companies seeking global protection for their longevity technologies.

Trade Secret Protection: Some companies are choosing to protect their longevity technologies as trade secrets rather than seeking patent protection, creating different competitive dynamics.

Market Access and Regulatory Competition

Competition in longevity research extends to regulatory and market access strategies, with companies seeking advantages through different regulatory pathways and market approaches.

Regulatory Arbitrage: Companies are pursuing regulatory approval in different countries based on varying regulatory requirements and timelines, creating competitive advantages for those who can navigate multiple regulatory systems effectively.

Market Entry Strategies: Different companies are pursuing different market entry strategies, from premium markets in developed countries to emerging markets with different regulatory and economic environments.

Reimbursement Competition: Competition for favorable reimbursement decisions is intensifying, as companies seek to demonstrate the value of their longevity technologies to healthcare payers.

Clinical Trial Competition: Competition for clinical trial sites, investigators, and patients is increasing, as more companies pursue longevity research and development.

Manufacturing and Supply Chain: Competition for manufacturing capacity and supply chain access is emerging as longevity technologies move toward commercialization.

Distribution Partnerships: Companies are competing for partnerships with healthcare providers, distributors, and other organizations that can provide access to patients and markets.

International Collaboration Models

Public-Private Partnerships

Public-private partnerships are playing an increasingly important role in longevity research, combining public resources and oversight with private innovation and efficiency.

Government-Industry Collaboration: Governments are partnering with private companies to accelerate longevity research, providing funding, regulatory support, and access to public resources in exchange for shared benefits and risk mitigation.

Academic-Industry Partnerships: Universities and research institutions are forming partnerships with companies to conduct longevity research, combining academic expertise with commercial resources and market access.

International Development Partnerships: Development organizations are partnering with private companies to bring longevity technologies to developing countries, addressing global health equity while creating new markets.

Philanthropic-Commercial Partnerships: Philanthropic organizations are partnering with commercial entities to support longevity research, combining mission-driven funding with commercial expertise and scalability.

Multi-Stakeholder Initiatives: Complex partnerships involving multiple types of organizations—governments, companies, academic institutions, and non-profits—are emerging to address the multifaceted challenges of longevity research.

Risk-Sharing Mechanisms: Innovative risk-sharing mechanisms are being developed to enable collaboration between organizations with different risk tolerances and investment horizons.

Data Sharing and Open Science

Data sharing and open science initiatives are crucial for accelerating longevity research while navigating competitive and privacy concerns.

Global Data Consortiums: International consortiums are being established to share aging-related data across countries and institutions, enabling research that would be impossible with smaller datasets.

Federated Learning Approaches: Federated learning technologies are enabling collaborative research on sensitive health data without requiring data to be shared directly, addressing privacy and competitive concerns.

Open Access Publishing: Open access publishing initiatives are making longevity research more accessible globally, accelerating the pace of scientific discovery and collaboration.

Precompetitive Collaboration: Companies are collaborating on precompetitive research areas where shared progress benefits all participants, while competing on commercial applications.

Standardization Efforts: International efforts to standardize data formats, biomarkers, and research protocols are facilitating collaboration and comparison across different research programs.

Ethical Frameworks: International frameworks for ethical data sharing and research collaboration are being developed to ensure that global cooperation respects privacy, consent, and cultural differences.

Technology Transfer and Capacity Building

International technology transfer and capacity building initiatives are helping to distribute longevity research capabilities more broadly around the world.

North-South Partnerships: Partnerships between developed and developing countries are facilitating technology transfer and capacity building in longevity research, creating more equitable global access to research capabilities.

Educational Exchange Programs: International exchange programs for researchers and students are building global capacity in longevity research and fostering international collaboration.

Technical Assistance Programs: Technical assistance programs are helping countries develop their own longevity research capabilities, from laboratory infrastructure to regulatory frameworks.

Knowledge Sharing Platforms: Digital platforms for sharing knowledge and expertise are enabling global collaboration and capacity building in longevity research.

Mentorship Networks: International mentorship networks are connecting experienced researchers with emerging scientists in developing countries, fostering capacity building and collaboration.

Infrastructure Development: International initiatives to develop research infrastructure in developing countries are creating new centers of excellence in longevity research.

Regional Strategies and Approaches

North American Approach

North America, led by the United States and Canada, has developed a distinctive approach to longevity research characterized by strong private sector involvement and market-driven innovation.

Innovation Ecosystem: The North American approach emphasizes creating innovation ecosystems that bring together academic research, private investment, and entrepreneurial talent to drive longevity research forward.

Regulatory Innovation: North American regulatory agencies are exploring innovative approaches to longevity research regulation, including adaptive trial designs and accelerated approval pathways.

Investment Capital: The availability of substantial venture capital and private investment in North America is driving rapid development of longevity technologies and companies.

Academic Excellence: Leading academic institutions in North America are conducting cutting-edge longevity research and training the next generation of researchers in the field.

Technology Integration: North American companies are leading in the integration of technology approaches, particularly AI and digital health, with traditional biomedical research.

Market Focus: The North American approach emphasizes market-driven solutions and commercial viability, with strong focus on developing technologies that can be successfully commercialized.

European Strategy

Europe has developed a collaborative approach to longevity research that emphasizes coordination across member states and integration with broader social and health policy objectives.

Coordinated Research: The European approach emphasizes coordinated research across multiple countries and institutions, leveraging the diversity of European populations and healthcare systems.

Regulatory Harmonization: Europe is working toward harmonized regulatory approaches to longevity research, creating more efficient pathways for development and approval of longevity technologies.

Social Integration: European longevity research emphasizes integration with broader social policy objectives, including healthcare system sustainability and social equity.

Ethical Leadership: Europe is taking a leadership role in developing ethical frameworks for longevity research, emphasizing patient rights, data protection, and social responsibility.

Public Health Focus: The European approach emphasizes public health applications of longevity research, with focus on population-level interventions and healthcare system integration.

International Cooperation: Europe is actively pursuing international cooperation in longevity research, both within Europe and with partners around the world.

Asian Innovation Models

Asian countries are developing innovative approaches to longevity research that leverage their unique demographic, technological, and cultural characteristics.

Population-Scale Studies: Asian countries, particularly China and Japan, are conducting population-scale studies of aging that would be difficult to replicate elsewhere, providing unique insights into aging processes.

Technology Integration: Asian countries are leading in the integration of advanced technologies, including AI, robotics, and digital health, with longevity research.

Traditional Medicine Integration: Asian approaches often integrate traditional medicine practices with modern longevity research, creating unique hybrid approaches to aging intervention.

Manufacturing Capabilities: Asian countries are developing strong manufacturing capabilities for longevity technologies, potentially creating cost advantages and supply chain benefits.

Regulatory Innovation: Some Asian countries are developing innovative regulatory approaches to longevity research, including expedited approval pathways and regulatory sandboxes.

Cultural Adaptation: Asian approaches to longevity research often emphasize cultural adaptation and integration with traditional values and practices related to aging and health.

Challenges in Global Coordination

Regulatory Harmonization

Achieving regulatory harmonization across different countries and regions presents significant challenges for global longevity research coordination.

Different Standards: Different countries have different regulatory standards and requirements for longevity research, creating challenges for companies seeking global approval of their technologies.

Cultural Differences: Cultural differences in attitudes toward aging, death, and medical intervention affect regulatory approaches and create challenges for harmonization efforts.

Sovereignty Concerns: Countries are reluctant to cede regulatory sovereignty to international bodies, limiting the extent to which harmonization can be achieved.

Resource Constraints: Developing countries may lack the resources to implement sophisticated regulatory frameworks for longevity research, creating disparities in regulatory capabilities.

Technical Complexity: The technical complexity of longevity technologies makes it difficult to develop harmonized regulatory approaches that can address all relevant issues.

Political Considerations: Political considerations and national interests can interfere with efforts to achieve regulatory harmonization in longevity research.

Intellectual Property Conflicts

Intellectual property conflicts present significant challenges for international cooperation in longevity research.

Patent Disputes: Patent disputes between companies and countries can hinder collaboration and create barriers to technology sharing and development.

Different IP Systems: Different intellectual property systems across countries create challenges for companies seeking global protection for their longevity technologies.

Access vs. Innovation: Tensions between ensuring access to longevity technologies and protecting intellectual property rights create challenges for international cooperation.

Compulsory Licensing: Disputes over compulsory licensing of longevity technologies can create conflicts between countries and companies.

Trade Secret Protection: Different approaches to trade secret protection across countries can create challenges for international collaboration and technology sharing.

Open Source vs. Proprietary: Tensions between open source and proprietary approaches to longevity research can create conflicts and coordination challenges.

Resource Allocation and Equity

Ensuring equitable resource allocation and access to longevity research benefits presents significant challenges for global coordination.

Funding Disparities: Large disparities in research funding between developed and developing countries create challenges for equitable global cooperation in longevity research.

Brain Drain: The migration of top researchers from developing to developed countries can exacerbate disparities in longevity research capabilities.

Technology Access: Ensuring equitable access to longevity technologies across different countries and populations presents significant challenges.

Capacity Building: Building research capacity in developing countries requires substantial investment and long-term commitment from the international community.

Priority Setting: Different countries have different priorities for longevity research, making it difficult to coordinate global efforts and resource allocation.

Sustainability: Ensuring the sustainability of international cooperation efforts in longevity research requires ongoing commitment and resource allocation.

Future Scenarios and Strategic Implications

Cooperative Scenarios

In optimistic scenarios, international cooperation in longevity research could lead to unprecedented scientific progress and global benefit.

Global Research Network: A truly global research network could emerge, with seamless collaboration between researchers worldwide and shared access to data, resources, and expertise.

Harmonized Regulation: Harmonized regulatory approaches could streamline the development and approval of longevity technologies, reducing costs and accelerating access to beneficial interventions.

Equitable Access: International cooperation could ensure equitable access to longevity technologies across all countries and populations, reducing global health disparities.

Shared Benefits: The benefits of longevity research could be shared globally, with all countries and populations benefiting from scientific advances regardless of where they were developed.

Accelerated Progress: International cooperation could dramatically accelerate progress in longevity research by pooling resources, expertise, and data from around the world.

Peaceful Competition: Healthy competition between countries and organizations could drive innovation while maintaining cooperative relationships and shared goals.

Competitive Scenarios

In more competitive scenarios, national and commercial interests could limit cooperation and create new forms of international tension.

Technology Nationalism: Countries could pursue nationalist approaches to longevity research, limiting international cooperation and creating technology export controls and restrictions.

Longevity Gaps: Disparities in access to longevity technologies could create new forms of international inequality and tension between countries with different levels of access.

Brain Drain Acceleration: Competition for top researchers could accelerate brain drain from developing to developed countries, exacerbating global research disparities.

IP Conflicts: Intellectual property conflicts could escalate, creating barriers to international cooperation and technology sharing.

Regulatory Fragmentation: Regulatory approaches could become more fragmented and nationalistic, creating barriers to global development and deployment of longevity technologies.

Commercial Dominance: A few large companies or countries could come to dominate longevity research, limiting competition and potentially slowing overall progress.

Hybrid Models

The most likely scenarios involve hybrid models that combine elements of cooperation and competition.

Selective Cooperation: Countries and organizations could cooperate in some areas while competing in others, creating complex patterns of collaboration and competition.

Regional Blocs: Regional blocs could emerge, with strong cooperation within regions but limited cooperation between regions.

Public-Private Balance: Different balances between public and private involvement in longevity research could emerge in different countries, creating diverse approaches to research and development.

Tiered Access: Tiered access models could emerge, with different levels of access to longevity technologies based on economic development, political relationships, or other factors.

Dynamic Partnerships: Partnerships and alliances could be dynamic and changing, with organizations forming different coalitions for different projects or objectives.

Managed Competition: International frameworks could emerge to manage competition and ensure that it remains constructive rather than destructive.

Strategic Recommendations

For Governments

Governments should pursue strategies that balance national interests with international cooperation to maximize the benefits of longevity research.

Investment in Research: Governments should increase investment in longevity research while pursuing international partnerships to leverage global expertise and resources.

Regulatory Innovation: Governments should develop innovative regulatory approaches that can accommodate longevity technologies while participating in international harmonization efforts.

International Engagement: Governments should actively engage in international cooperation initiatives while protecting national interests and sovereignty.

Capacity Building: Governments should invest in building domestic research capacity while supporting international capacity building efforts.

Ethical Leadership: Governments should take leadership roles in developing ethical frameworks for longevity research and ensuring responsible development and deployment of technologies.

Public Engagement: Governments should engage their populations in discussions about longevity research and its implications, building public support for research investment and international cooperation.

For Organizations

Organizations involved in longevity research should pursue strategies that balance competitive advantage with collaborative benefit.

Strategic Partnerships: Organizations should form strategic partnerships that can provide access to complementary capabilities and resources while maintaining competitive advantage.

Global Presence: Organizations should develop global presence and capabilities to access the best research, talent, and markets worldwide.

IP Strategy: Organizations should develop sophisticated intellectual property strategies that protect their innovations while enabling beneficial collaboration.

Regulatory Expertise: Organizations should develop expertise in navigating multiple regulatory systems and contributing to regulatory harmonization efforts.

Ethical Commitment: Organizations should demonstrate commitment to ethical research practices and responsible development of longevity technologies.

Stakeholder Engagement: Organizations should engage with diverse stakeholders, including governments, academic institutions, and civil society organizations, to build support for their research and development efforts.

For the Global Community

The global community should work together to create frameworks and institutions that can support beneficial cooperation in longevity research.

International Institutions: New international institutions may be needed to coordinate longevity research and address global challenges and opportunities.

Funding Mechanisms: International funding mechanisms should be developed to support longevity research in developing countries and ensure equitable access to research benefits.

Ethical Frameworks: Global ethical frameworks should be developed to guide longevity research and ensure that it serves the interests of all humanity.

Technology Sharing: Mechanisms for sharing longevity technologies should be developed to ensure that the benefits of research are distributed equitably.

Capacity Building: International capacity building programs should be expanded to ensure that all countries can participate in and benefit from longevity research.

Public Engagement: Global public engagement efforts should be undertaken to build understanding and support for longevity research and international cooperation.

Conclusion: Building a Collaborative Future for Human Longevity

The global landscape of longevity research presents both unprecedented opportunities for international cooperation and significant challenges in coordinating efforts across diverse political, economic, and cultural systems. As we stand at the threshold of potentially transformative advances in human longevity, the choices we make about cooperation and competition will largely determine whether these advances benefit all of humanity or exacerbate existing inequalities and create new forms of division.

The examples of successful international cooperation we see today—from global data sharing initiatives to multinational research consortiums—demonstrate that meaningful collaboration is possible even in a competitive environment. These examples provide templates for how different types of organizations and countries can work together while maintaining their distinct interests and capabilities. The key is finding models that create shared value while respecting the legitimate interests of all participants.

The competitive dynamics in longevity research, while sometimes creating tensions, also drive innovation and accelerate progress. The challenge is ensuring that competition remains constructive rather than destructive, fostering innovation while enabling the collaboration necessary to address the complex challenges of aging research. This requires sophisticated approaches to intellectual property, regulatory coordination, and resource sharing that can balance competitive advantage with collective benefit.

The regional strategies emerging around the world—from North America's market-driven approach to Europe's coordinated research model to Asia's technology integration focus—demonstrate that there are multiple viable paths to advancing longevity research. Rather than seeing these differences as obstacles to cooperation, we should view them as complementary approaches that can strengthen the global research ecosystem through diversity and specialization.

The challenges facing global coordination in longevity research—from regulatory harmonization to intellectual property conflicts to resource allocation—are significant but not insurmountable. They require sustained effort, creative problem-solving, and commitment to shared goals. The experience of international cooperation in other areas, from space exploration to pandemic response, provides lessons and models that can be adapted to longevity research.

The future scenarios we face range from highly cooperative models that could accelerate progress and ensure equitable access to more fragmented approaches that could limit the benefits of longevity research to privileged populations. The path we take will depend on the choices made by governments, organizations, and the global community in the coming years. The stakes are too high and the potential benefits too great to allow narrow interests to prevent beneficial cooperation.

The work of purpose-driven organizations like Immortal Dragons Fund demonstrates the importance of maintaining focus on the ultimate goal of longevity research—extending healthy human lifespan for the benefit of all humanity. Their approach to supporting underfunded research and fostering international collaboration provides a model for how the global community can work together to address the challenges of aging.

The strategic recommendations for governments, organizations, and the global community emphasize the need for balanced approaches that can capture the benefits of both cooperation and competition. This requires sophisticated strategies that can navigate complex political, economic, and cultural dynamics while maintaining focus on the shared goal of advancing human longevity.

As we look toward the future, it is clear that the most significant advances in longevity research will come from collaborative efforts that can harness the collective wisdom, resources, and capabilities of the global community. No single country, organization, or approach has all the answers to the complex challenges of aging. Success will require unprecedented levels of cooperation across traditional boundaries while maintaining the competitive dynamics that drive innovation and progress.

The ultimate vision is of a global longevity research ecosystem that is both collaborative and competitive, where different approaches and perspectives strengthen rather than weaken the overall effort. This ecosystem would be characterized by open sharing of basic research findings, collaborative development of common tools and standards, and healthy competition in the development and commercialization of specific interventions.

In building this collaborative future, we must remain mindful of the ethical implications of longevity research and ensure that the benefits of extended lifespan are accessible to all of humanity rather than becoming a source of new inequalities. This requires not only scientific and technological innovation but also social and political innovation that can create frameworks for equitable access and benefit sharing.

The journey toward extended human longevity is one that all of humanity must take together. Through thoughtful cooperation, constructive competition, and unwavering commitment to the common good, we can build a future where the benefits of longevity research serve to enhance rather than divide human civilization. In this endeavor, we see not only the potential for individual benefit but the opportunity to demonstrate humanity's capacity for collaboration in service of our most fundamental aspirations.